Such ornaments have an exceedingly long history and continue to be used in present day South Asia. In contrast, during the Neolithic period at the site of Mehrgarh, Pakistan c. During the subsequent Chalcolithic periods we see evidence for the firing of these same types of beads resulting in hard white beads Later on, by B. By firing these ornaments in high temperature kilns the Indus artisans were able to produce various colors, such as red, brown, blue, green, black or white.
Another complex technique that became common around B. White quartz pebbles were ground to extremely fine powder and melted with various colorants to make a glassy frit. This frit was then reground and glazed to produce various.
The selection of steatite and faience for producing specific types of ornaments such as steatite disc beads, square steatite seals and glazed faience bangles serves to distinguish the Indus ornaments from those produced in other regions at the same time. Both of these techniques became highly specialized in the Indus cities, and although they do occur in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the specific quality of the finished objects and the techniques of manufacture appear to be significantly different Relative value or ranking of ornaments.
Keeping these examples in mind, it is possible to assume that the value and importance of an ornament was not simply a function of the final shape or design, but also derived to some extent from the type of raw material, combined with the time, effort and techniques used to produce a specific object.
Even though it is not possible to assign specific values to ornaments, it is possible to differentiate and rank specific ornaments or ornament styles on the basis of raw materials and technology. For examples, at most sites of the Indus tradition, terra-cotta bangles in various shapes and sizes occur in extremely large quantities. While some of the objects classified as terra-cotta "bangles" may actually have been used as kiln setters 21 and not actually worn, the extremely high number of terra-cotta bangle-like fragments is still significant.
During the course of 5 seasons at Harappa, 34, terra-cotta "bangles" and fragments were recovered, constitut-. From these same excavations only 1. Due to the fact that all of these types of bangles, except for copper, tend to break into an equally wide range of fragment sizes, the total numbers do in fact provide meaningful comparisons. The ranking of bangles on the basis of raw material and the level of technology seems to be correlated with the overall abundance of bangle fragments from the excavations.
Gold, silver, stoneware, copper and faience would be the highest ranked and terracotta the lowest, with shell falling somewhere in between. The higher numbers of faience bangle fragments could be a function of their tendency to break into smaller fragments than shell bangles. While most of these bangles are relatively comparable in terms of shape, there are specific elements of design and decoration as well as the contexts in which they have been found, that will be further evaluated below.
Harappan phase. It is quite clear that these beads were produced in extremely large quantities, and worn in long necklaces or anklets. Two such ornaments recovered in the cemetery at Harappa contained and beads respectively By ranking the beads on the basis of raw material and technology Table 4 terra-cotta and bone fall below the other raw materials though they were not the most abundant. Shell and some varieties of stone that can be worked with relatively simple technologies fall in the middle, but most of the beads are made from raw materials that require relatively complex technologies and high temperature kilns.
The objective of these examples is to demonstrate the relationships that can be found between general categories of ornaments, raw materials and technology. The sample of material collected from recent excavations at Harappa is unique in that it represents the total number of artifacts recovered by a uniform recovery and recording method. Future research at sites in South Asia, Mesopotamia and Egypt may some day provide comparable samples, but at this time there is no such published data.
In the absence of such comparative samples, the meaning of these patterns can be further understood by examining the ornaments on the basis of shape, color and the ways in which ornaments were combined and worn. The ranking of beads is not quite as simple because of the numerous raw materials and technologies involved Table 3.
On the model of bangles, one might expect that there would be thousands of terra-cotta or bone beads and relatively fewer beads made from materials that were more difficult to acquire and manufacture. However, this pattern is not evident, and steatite beads appear to be the most common, comprising Most of these beads are made from white fired steatite and have a very short cylinder or disc shape.
This shape and color of bead was first made from shell during the Neolithic and then made from steatite and fired steatite in the Chalcolithic and Early Harappan periods. Except for a few examples in faience or paste, disc beads came to be made exclusively from fired steatite during the.
Ornament shapes and styles. There are several levels at which ornament shapes and styles can be studied. In most cases archaeologists discover single ornaments, such as beads or broken bangles that were discarded or lost and became buried along with domestic garbage. Each of these individual ornaments preserves a total shape and color that can be analyzed and classified according to specific ornament types.
Such studies are currently under way for the site of Harappa and the Indus Tradition in general. At a different level we can study the ways in which these separate components were combined by different individuals to form complete necklaces or body ornaments.
Ornaments found in burials and depicted on figurines and carvings demonstrate that the Indus people had developed distinctive ornament styles. Ornament style refers to the combination of different components to produce specific patterns derived from shapes and colors.
Preliminary results from the study of Indus bangles and beads indicate that both the raw materials and the varieties of ornament types changed significantly over time. In this article, most of the discussion will focus on specific examples from recent excavations at Harappa, with some correlations made to other sites.
The earliest bangles from the aceramic Neolithic period at Mehrgarh Period IA appear to have been wide shell bangles and bracelets from shell and stone beads After ceramic production became well established in the later Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, terra-cotta bangles were introduced, but shell bangles and bead bracelets continued to be used.
During the Early Harappan phase there is a gradual diversification in raw materials and bangle styles, but the real burst of design and variation is seen in the urban Harappan phase, circa B. Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, round section, irregular circle. Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, squarish section, irregular circle. Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, double round section, irregular circle.
Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, double squarish section, irregular circle. Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, triple ridge, irregular circle. Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, pinched spike motif, irregular circle. Terra-cotta, reddish yellow, pinched concave lunate motif, irregular circle. Faience, blue-green, azure, white, or yellow glazed, round section, circular.
Fine Terra-cotta, red-brown paint, red slip, circular. Faience, blue-green or azure glazed, deeply carved spiked motif, kidney shape. Fine Terra-cotta, reddish yellow or grey, single ridge, highly burnished, circular.
Stoneware, reddish yellow or grey black, single ridge, highly. Faience, blue-green or azure glazed, round section, incised.
Faience, blue-green, or azure glazed, round section, incised. Faience, white glazed, round section, incised single chevron motif, circular. Marine Shell, white, single ridge, incised single chevron motif, irregular circle, elliptical or kidney shape. Short, circular, rectangular commonly - disc bead. Short, circular, rectangular, irregular circle Spondylus sp. Short, circular, concave rectangle, Conus sp. Short, circular, concave rectangle, irregular Spondylus sp. Neolithic and Chalcolithic at Mehrgarh.
Long, circular, rectangular, commonly - tubular bead. Long, circular, truncated elliptical. Long, elliptical, truncated elliptical. Short, circular, hexagonal commonly - short truncated bi- cone. Short, lenticular, hexagonal. Short, circular, rectangle, pendant. Natural shell, Dentalium sp. Natural shell, Engina mendicaria. Natural shell, Nerita sp.
Table 5. The designs for the different bangles are quite varied and range from simple circlets with round section, to decorated bangles with incised, glazed, pinched and molded motifs fig. During the Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic at Mehrgarh beads were made from both locally available and exotic raw materials and in a relatively limited range of shapes and sizes The vast majority of the beads were made in short or long cylindrical shapes, though there are some other varieties fig.
Most of the beads were made from relatively soft raw materials; shell, limestone, steatite, serpentine, lapis lazuli and even turquoise. There are some examples of hard carnelian beads in the Neolithic, but they all appear to have been short biconi- cal shapes that can be perforated by chipping rather than drilling.
Later, during the Chalcolithic period B. Period III there is evidence for the use of hard stone drills and the production of longer bead shapes in agate and carnelian. A very important development during this same period is the firing of steatite to produce white steatite beads 25 and also probably the intentional heating of agate to produce.
Selected Harappan Bead and Pendant Types. Very short to very long, with circular transverse section and various types of longitudinal sections. Very short to long, with elliptical transverse section and various types of longitudinal sections.
Very short to long, with lenticular transverse section and truncated lenticular longitudinal section. Very short to long, with piano convex transverse section and truncated lenticular longitudinal section. Natural stone beads, with perpendicular banding.
Imitation stone beads made from steatite with red slip and white paint. Faience with perpendicular banding, red brown to black with white bands. Eye design, red-brown background with white circles made from natural onyx, steatite with red slip and white paint, or incised steatite with red inlay and white relief. Eye design, red-brown background with white circles made from bleached carnelian, or steatite with red slip and white paint, or faience.
Steatite with incised circle motifs. Double and triple eye motifs, made from bleached carnelian, or steatite with red slip and white paint. Overfired carnelian resulting in black lines on white calcified carnelian.
Bleached carnelian with eye designs, also made from steatite with red slip and white paint. Bleached carnelian with banded designs, also made from steatite with red slip and white paint, or incised steatite with red inlay and white relief. Natural banded agate, also made from steatite with red slip and white paint. Pendants amulets , made from stone or faience.
The raw materials, techniques of manufacture and even the bead styles of these earlier periods, undoubtedly formed the basis for later developments in the Early Harappan and Harappan phases Current research indicates that the production of beads in the Early Harappan and particularly the Harappan phase sees a dramatic increase in the variety of raw materials and also an increase in the shapes and varieties of beads being produced fig.
One of the important features of the beads made during the Harappan phase is that many bead types, defined by shape, size and decoration, were made in different qualities of raw material Table 6. Continuing in the trends established during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, the Harappan bead makers chose to use steatite, fired steatite, banded agates, camelian and other multicolored rocks. By careful chipping and grinding they were able to accentuate certain patterns of banding, dots, circles or mottling that were present in the natural stones.
However, the Harappan artisans did not limit themselves to the natural rocks alone, and by using other raw materials and new techniques they made. Styles of Adornment : Bangles. In order to better understand the role of these ornaments in the Indus Tradition and especially the urban Harappan society, we need to determine how these ornaments were worn and who wore them?
Bangles, by definition, refer to circlets worn on the arms, but there are ethnographic examples of circlets worn in the hair, on belts, on the ankles, or sewn onto clothing. The evidence from burials and figurines from the Neolithic through the urban Harappan phase suggest that circlets were worn primarily as bangles on the lower and upper arms.
In Neolithic Mehrgarh, a single wide shell bangle was worn on the wrist and bead bracelets often were worn on both wrists. Later, with the introduction of narrow bangles of shell or terra-cotta, several bangles appear to have been worn at the same time, often on both wrists This pattern is well documented from figurines and seal carvings of the Harappan phase fig. Primary context burials. During the Harappan phase, some female figurines depict three of four bangles at the wrist and two or more bangles above the elbow, often with equal numbers of bangles worn on both arms A slightly modified pattern is depicted on the famous copper figurines from Mohenjo Daro, where several bangles were worn on the right arm at the wrist and elbow, but the left arm was filled with bangles from wrist to shoulder The famous seals depicting a seated male with horned head dress show both arms filled with what have been interpreted as bangles.
In one seal the bangles appear to be of different types. A bangle with projecting section was worn at the wrist, followed by four flat bangles on the forearm. Another projecting bangle is seen above the elbow followed again by four flat bangles. A final projecting bangle is worn on the upper arm A second seal shows a similar individual with bangles from wrist to shoulder, seven on the right arm and eight on the left arm Figurines and seals show that bangles were worn on both arms from wrist to shoulder, or as one or two bangles at the wrist of one or both arms.
However, they do not allow the identification of what types of bangles were being worn or the combinations of design and color being used.
The only concrete evidence for the types of bangles being worn comes from burial ornaments Table 8. In reviewing the reported grave goods from all of the cemeteries of the Harappan phase, only white shell bangles appear to have been buried with the dead. In recent excavations at the cemetery of Harappa itself, white shell bangles were found on the left arm of middle aged adult women age Sometimes they were worn on the lower arm or wrist, but in two cases bangles were worn both above and below the elbow.
The bangles in the earliest burials are slightly wider than those found in later burials, and the thinnest bangles are found in the latest burial. However, even. There is only one example of a middle aged adult male Burial A with a broken shell bangle that appears to have been worn on the left wrist.
This individual was buried in a wooden coffin and covered with some form of shroud. Another elaborate ornament was found at the right side of the skull towards the back of the head. This apparent head ornament was made from thousands of steatite microbeads and a jasper bead combined with two or three shell circlets Another instance of shell circlets is reported from Wheeler's earlier excavations in this same cemetery.
The burial, "probably that of a female" was interred in a coffin with what appears to have been a reed shroud. The similarities between these two burials are striking and since the sex identification proposed by Wheeler is somewhat uncertain, it is difficult to determine if the shell circlets worn in a hair ornament were used by both men and women or not.
On the basis of burials from the Neolithic period at Mehrgarh and later figurines from the Chalcolithic period, we can determine that bangles or bracelets were worn by both men and women, adults and children.
During the Harappan period, bangles are seen primarily on female figurines and in female burials, although some males do appear to have worn bangles.
Occasionally, shell circlets were worn as hair ornaments on men. Disc bead ankle bracelets were found on a female burial at Harappa in 35 and one possible example of a similar ornament was found in the recent excavations Table 8 It is important to note that none of the individuals buried at Harappa or any other reported site have been found wearing terra-cotta, faience, copper or stoneware bangles.
Burial Ornament Styles. While bangles are generally limited to the arms, beads or pendants can be worn in numerous ways and allow for considerable individual variation. In assessing the ways in which beads were commonly worn in the Indus Tradition, we can look at the general styles reflected by figurines fig. During the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period at Mehrgarh, beads were used in a wide variety of ornaments.
That a major state had flourished on the rich floodplains of the great trans-Himalayan river was unexpected. Subsequent surveys and excavations in western India and Pakistan have uncovered more than 1, additional settlements distributed over an area the size of western Europe and twice that of Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.
Although the Indus Valley people did not produce monumental stone carvings and did not bury their dead with their wealth, they constructed large, well-planned cities and made exquisite luxury items that were traded and exported to distant markets in the Persian Gulf, Central Asia and Mesopotamia. The similarities in site layout and artifact style throughout the Indus region reflect a surprisingly uniform economic and social structure. In the late George F. Dales of the University of California at Berkeley established the Harappa Archaeological Research Project, a long-term multidisciplinary study effort that I now co-direct with Richard H.
We conduct on-site investigations and laboratory research to study the original Harappan settlement and to trace the evolution of the larger city that emerged at the site. That work has revealed several phases of development. The Indus cities established their economic base on agricultural produce and livestock, supplemented by fishing and hunting. Both the common people and the elite classes derived additional income from the production and trade of commodities, including cotton and woolen textiles as well as a variety of craft items.
The earliest village settlement at Harappa called the Ravi phase dates from before B. Farming an environment similar to the agricultural lands of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, the ancient Indus peoples herded cattle and cultivated wheat, barley, legumes and sesame.
Specialized craft technologies spread among the early settlements along trade networks, which likewise disseminated a shared set of religious symbols and artifact styles throughout the region.
Archaeologists have found other small farming communities from this period to the north and south of Harappa along the Ravi River, but none of these hamlets expanded into a larger town. In the limited exposed area of the Ravi-period Harappa, investigators have turned up signs of the production of both terra-cotta and stone beads and bangles. The terra-cotta items were probably worn by children or commoners, or both, whereas the more exotic stone and seashell ornaments most likely adorned local upper-class populations.
Through careful analysis of the raw materials and comparison to known source regions, archaeologists have shown that some of the raw materials used by the early Ravi craftsmen arrived at the site from to kilometers away. Impressions of woven fabric on small terra-cotta beads provide evidence of textile production, possibly of both cotton and wool.
This early site also contains the first indication of abstract symbols, or pictographs, scratched onto pottery. Current studies suggest that some of these symbols were retained in the later formalized Indus script, much as ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian symbols on pottery and clay tablets from around B. Between and B.
Physically, it expanded into a substantial town containing two walled sectors covering an area of more than 25 hectares--about the size of several large shopping malls. In the meantime, many related villages grew up in scattered sites nearby. During this period, called the Kot Dijian after the site of Kot Diji to the south , artisans developed new craft technologies for making widely distributed products such as gray fired bangles and faience a form of glazed pottery , the fabrication of which usually involved the use of high-temperature kilns [ see box on page 32 ].
At the same time, increasing quantities of stone and other raw materials were being transported to Harappa, probably by oxcarts and flat-bottomed riverboats. Toy bullock carts and wheels made of terra-cotta have been found at Harappa from this period, and the later use of carts and boats is well documented. Archaeologists have also recovered figurines of cattle and humans painted with what appear to be woven fabrics, a sign of growing textile production and the importance of clothing, not only for functionality but for public display.
A formal writing system, known as the Early Indus script, emerged in this phase, as evinced by its appearance on numerous pottery fragments and in impressions that a seal, or stamp, made in clay. Merchants employed seals to indicate ownership of storerooms or bundles of goods by stamping clay tags, or bullae, over a cord or a secured door. These square seals, carved in intaglio with geometric or animal motifs, served as economic documentation.
Because only a few seals have been discovered, it is likely that they were used by individuals or communities with considerable power, such as landowners, merchants and religious leaders. Excavations have turned up other signs of economic evolution during the Kot Dijian period. In particular, scientists unearthed a tiny cubical limestone weight. The stone cube weighs 1. Its recovery indicates that a system of determining value by weight, possibly for tax or tribute, was established in Harappa two centuries before it became widespread throughout the Indus Valley.
Many religious symbols of horned human forms and ritual designs on pottery began to appear at Harappa and in far-flung corners of the Indus region during the Ravi and Kot Dijian periods, indicating the spread and synthesis of religious and cultural ideas.
Whereas in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia military conquest achieved the integration of distinct regions into single states, this pattern has not been seen in early Indus settlements. The first settlers at Harappa seem to have exploited the rich agricultural and grazing lands along the Ravi River to sustain themselves as they built economic and political power through craft production and trade and then legitimized their standing through religious practices rather than warfare.
The fully urban phase of Harappa termed the Harappa phase began around B. For seven centuries Harappa was one of the largest and most powerful economic and political centers in the Indus Valley, despite the seeming lack of an army. During the spring and late-summer trading seasons, the city would have hosted hundreds of traders who attracted thousands of people from the surrounding rural areas.
Depending on the time of year, 40, to 80, people may have lived in the city. Wealthy patrons and entrepreneurial competition stimulated the development of new technologies and more extensive trade networks. Excavators have found distinctive pottery with widely used ritual motifs at all settlements throughout the greater Indus Valley, along with unique objects such as cubical stone weights, and seals inscribed with Indus writing and a motif depicting a mythical unicorn.
The presence of raw materials and finished goods from Afghanistan and Central Asia indicates that merchants from these areas came to the city bringing lapis lazuli, tin, gold, silver and, perhaps, fine woolen textiles which have since vanished.
Traders would have carried back to the highlands cereal grains and livestock, as well as fine cottons and possibly even silks, but these items are not well preserved. Other nonperishable objects, such as long, elegant beads made of carnelian a form of red agate and shell bangles from the Indus Valley, have been dug up in Central Asia and Mesopotamia.
In its prime, Harappa measured more than hectares in area--more than five kilometers in circuit, encompassing three large raised mounds and associated suburbs. The modern town of Harappa, with a population of around 20,, still occupies a third of the ancient site. The citys architecture and street layout were organized to facilitate access to the different neighborhoods and to segregate the public and private areas. Another popular Hindu God is Ganesha, who is easily identified by his elephant head.
Ganesha is also deva god of intellect and wisdom and the patron of arts and sciences. Many believe the universe is recreated in karmic cycles. Many believe in Brahma as a Creator God. After Death: The laws of karma govern the rebirth of one's soul in Hinduism.
Ultimately, one's soul becomes enlightened and liberated from the cycle of death and rebirth, entering ultimate bliss and becoming one with Brahman. During one's cycle of death and rebirth, one's karma dictates which of the many heavens, hells, and lower life forms one may become. Is there Evil in the World, and Why?
Hindus generally believe that individuals can do evil if they forget their divine natures. Some also believe in gods can do some evil.
In general, Hindus think that evil, sin, and death are illusions since all that exists is nature, the Ultimate Reality or God.
Central Doctrines: Hindu religious practices consist of living in the right way, which is called "dharma". In general, right living includes worshiping God or gods, doing good works, going on pilgrimages to the holy places, and learning through meditation, yoga, and, with the help of a master. Hindu Gods.
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